Ethics of animal research in human disease remediation, its institutional teaching; and alternatives to animal experimentation

Rajkumar Cheluvappa, 1 Paul Scowen, 2 and Rajaraman Ericorresponding author 3

Animals have been used in research and teaching for a long time. However, clear ethical guidelines and pertinent legislation were instated only in the past few decades, even in developed countries with Judeo‐Christian ethical roots. We compactly cover the basics of animal research ethics, ethical reviewing and compliance guidelines for animal experimentation across the developed world, “our” fundamentals of institutional animal research ethics teaching, and emerging alternatives to animal research. This treatise was meticulously constructed for scientists interested/involved in animal research. Herein, we discuss key animal ethics principles – Replacement/Reduction/Refinement. Despite similar undergirding principles across developed countries, ethical reviewing and compliance guidelines for animal experimentation vary. The chronology and evolution of mandatory institutional ethical reviewing of animal experimentation (in its pioneering nations) are summarised. This is followed by a concise rendition of the fundamentals of teaching animal research ethics in institutions. With the advent of newer methodologies in human cell‐culturing, novel/emerging methods aim to minimise, if not avoid the usage of animals in experimentation. Relevant to this, we discuss key extant/emerging alternatives to animal use in research; including organs on chips, human‐derived three‐dimensional tissue models, human blood derivates, microdosing, and computer modelling of various hues.

Keywords: alternatives, animal ethics committee, animal experimentation, animal research, code, distress, ethics, pain, pathophysiology, reduction, replacement

Abbreviations

ECPAEuropean Crop Protection AssociationEFPIAEuropean Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and AssociationsHSEhuman skin equivalentsICLASInternational Council for Laboratory Animal ScienceSPCASociety for Prevention of Cruelty to AnimalsGo to:

Introduction

The humanest possible treatment of experimental animals, far from being an obstacle, is actually a prerequisite for successful animal experiments.

— Russell & Burch. Principles of Humane Experimental Technique (1959)(Russell and Burch 1959).

The use of animals in pathology, and related research/teaching is pivotal to the advancement of science, as animals have been considered to be good model systems for humans and human disease. Animal models can be appropriate, or can be approximated to study human anatomy, physiology, pathology, etc., as animals may have a biological milieu resembling human homoeostatic conditions.

Research involving animals may include awareness research (e.g., behavioural, embryological, physiology, and genetic) which is necessary to contribute eventually (and indirectly) to human disease remediation (Cheluvappa et al. 2007a,b), and applied research (academic or/and commercial), such as pathology (Cheluvappa et al. 2015), drug testing, pathogen research (Cheluvappa et al. 2010), defence research, and toxicology (Cheluvappa et al. 2008). When animal research ethics are mentioned subsequently in this work, it will generally refer to the academic areas which we (the authors) work with, namely; murine models of physiology, pathogenesis, and toxicology.

Animal usage in research and teaching is subject to strict ethical guidelines all over the developed world. With the advancement of technology in medical research, we are now at a stage to consider manifold alternatives to utilising animals in research and teaching. In this study, we concisely cover the fundamental principles of animal research ethics, compliance guidelines for animal experimentation, institutional animal research ethics teaching, and emerging alternatives to animal research. The intended targets of this study are scientists and ethicists interested in animal research, for example, undergraduates, graduate students, medical students, and clinicians. We emphasise that this work is not intended to be an elaborate treatise.

The intents of this study are fourfold, with each intent in contiguity with the next.

1. The first intent of our study is to provide a concise summary of previous and extant thought on animal experimentation ethics.
2. The second intent of our study is to demonstrate how previous and contemporary thought on principles/mores pertaining to animal experimentation ethics, finally translated into concrete legislation to mandate compulsory review of ethical practices in animal research.
3. The third intent of our study is to lay out suggestions, practical recommendations, and teaching strategies for the lucid inculcation of animal experimentation ethics to interested parties.
4. The fourth intent of our study is to provide and raise awareness of available alternatives to animal research.